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This leads us to hypothesize that cognitive benefits of aerobic fitness may extend to the domain of language processing: language production is predominantly associated with functional activation in frontal and temporal regions in the brain 20 word finding difficulties in particular are associated with functional activation 21 and structural atrophy 22 of the left insula. Among others, structural integrity in frontal and temporal regions of the brain has been related to aerobic fitness 18, 19. Regular physical exercise and the resultant higher aerobic fitness is associated with reducing age-related decline in brain perfusion 16 and structural integrity 17. This stands in stark contrast to the amount of evidence of aerobic fitness benefits for other cognitive domains (e.g., cognitive control, executive functioning, visuo-spatial memory, learning and processing speed) 14, 15. To date, no studies have investigated whether there is a relationship between aerobic fitness and language functioning. Even when the primary mode of exercise that is taken up is walking, research has demonstrated short- and long-term cognitive benefits 13.
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Moreover, at least some modes of regular physical exercise are easily accessible, such as walking. Interventions as short as 6 weeks can result in a measurable increase in aerobic fitness 12. As an intervention strategy, regular exercise is accessible, safe and effective 11. Regular physical exercise is a lifestyle intervention approach that has received a considerable amount of attention in previous studies. In the present research we investigated whether older adults’ aerobic fitness levels are related to the incidence of age-related language failures such as tip-of-the-tongue states. This process is essential for successful and fluent language production, and its disruption has very noticeable negative consequences for elderly speakers. Tip-of-the-tongue states indicate a disruption in the process of transmission between meaning and phonology 4, 9, 10. Spoken word production is a two-stage process involving the retrieval of word meaning, followed by the associated phonology 8. Instead, focused experimental research has demonstrated that tip-of-the-tongue states are indicative of deficits in accessing phonology (i.e. In fact, older adults usually have a much larger vocabulary than younger adults 7. However, this is a misconception: tip-of-the-tongue states are not associated with episodic memory loss 6. Older adults worry that tip-of-the-tongue states indicate serious memory problems 3. The frequency of tip-of-the-tongue states increases with age 4 and indeed tip-of-the-tongue states are documented to be among the most frequent cognitive failures in healthy older adults 5.
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People in a tip-of-the-tongue state have a strong conviction that they know a word, but are unable to produce it. Word finding difficulties often surface as tip-of-the-tongue experiences. It is therefore also not surprising that when asked about age-related cognitive failures, older adults report that word finding difficulties are particularly irritating and embarrassing 3. Focus groups have highlighted that maintaining social relations and independence are particularly instrumental for a positive experience of ageing 2, and good language abilities are crucial for achieving this. The way people move, feel, think, interact with and talk to others all co-determine the ageing experience.
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The experience of healthy ageing is only loosely related to one’s numerical age. Maintaining good language skills is important for older adults. An interesting question therefore is whether lifestyle factors such as aerobic fitness are related to the occurrence of such ‘senior moments’. Temporary cognitive lapses, such as not having a word come to mind when speaking, occur more frequently as we grow older. In this paper we focus on cognitive changes, particularly changes in language abilities, in the healthy ageing population. In part motivated by the economic, healthcare and social challenges associated with this shift, there is an ever-growing interest in uncovering the antecedents of healthy ageing. If the existing demographic trends continue, then in countries with high life expectancies such as the UK, Canada, the US and Japan, most children born after the year 2000 will live to become 100 years old 1.